How the theories are used Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

How the theories are used - Essay Example The nature of theories is explained on the basis of the evaluation of the quality of the theories. They includebeing logical and having consistency internallyaccording to. Also they should be in conformity with existing data on a given topicas put forth by because a difference may occur if one of the theories is more precise than the other. Having said, consistency of data collected has to conformtothe many independent evidences and not just one foundation. This is important as it ensures that it is in close proximity in meaning if not absolutely correct. Another important aspect is that theory'spredictions should be testable since this will determine how useful the theory will be in the subject matter. The theory can be easily adopted and modified to explain new evidences and this increases the ability to be predictive over time. In addition, according to a theory should raise new questions and suppose the questions can be easily answered using the strategies involved in problem sol ving. It is argued that a good theory is one that forbids certain things from happening and therefore the more it prohibits the better it is. It is noteworthy therefore, that there are those features that would make theories desirable, need for it to be simple in its presentation, must be economical in its attempt to explain a given phenomena and finally, it should be consistent with the theories that are related.With regard to the types of theories, there are several types as illustrated below. ... make theories desirable, need for it to be simple in its presentation, must be economical in its attempt to explain a given phenomena and finally, it should be consistent with the theories that are related. With regard to the types of theories, there are several types as illustrated below. Firstly, it is descriptive theory which seeks to classify specific characteristics of groups, events or individuals by making a summary of the similarities observed in the data collected. This type of theory is useful when very little is known about the issue at hand. There are two categories in this type of theory: the naming and classification according to (Stevens, 1984). On one hand, the naming theory simply describes the features of a particular phenomenon and on the other, classification theory is more elaborate as it notes the dimensions which are structurally interrelated. These theories are commonly known as taxonomies. These theories are tested by the descriptive theory which may or may n ot use a scientific manner of data collection. The empirical method used here involves the use of open ended questionnaires or interviews, active or non active participation, hence the data may be qualitative and or quantitative. Examples of this kind of research include case studies, ethnographies and surveys. Secondly, relational theories specifies the relationship between features of events, groups and individuals. They explain the relationship between parts of a given phenomena. The development of this theory is only when the key features are known after the validation and development of descriptive theories. It answers the question what. In addition, it is generated by the co-relational research. The features of an occurrence are observed from their natural environment and the

Design (art and craft) innovation in Pakistan textile Literature review - 2

Design (art and craft) innovation in Pakistan textile - Literature review Example The British crown, which was colonizing Pakistan at the time of the rise of industrial revolution in the 19th century was pressurised to institute formal art and craft education in Pakistan by the Arts & Crafts Movement. This paved way for the first art and craft school in Pakistan; Mayo School of Industrial Art in1875. The industrial revolution replaced human labour with machineries, prompting the Arts & Crafts Movement in Pakistan to push for the development of formal education and skill in Design (art and craft) Education in Pakistan, to avoid machinery replacing human labour in the Pakistan textile industry. Universities such as University of Information and Technology, Hajvery University, University of engineering and Technology in Lahore, The University of Beaconhouse and the Textile university of Faisalabad have played an important role in offering design (art&craft) education. Pakistan institutions of higher learning are important contributors to the global textile industry advancement. This is achieved through offering design education and also promoting research in this field. Designers need to follow up the laid down needs of the customers to come up with a design process that will satisfy those needs effectively. The research stage is therefore the most important in the design process. In the period 1676-1820, design was characteristically utilitarian, comprising of targeting the functionality of the designs, as opposed to its aesthetic value. The role of design changed in the period between 1820 and 1910, when design education took centre stage, as opposed to the creation of designers through apprenticeship. Beyond 1930, design became mediatised, such that design education focused more on advertisement and aesthetic value. Design is a dynamic field and it has changed dramatically over the years. Starting with functional/utilitarian design, it progressed to aesthetic design and

Four Views of Hell Essay Example for Free

Four Views of Hell Essay These four professors argue the following views of hell: literal, metaphorical, purgatorial and conditional interpretations. This book peers inside the different theories of hell, each of their relation to the Bible and the evolution throughout time. Each chapter begins with that particular scholar’s view, followed by the rebuttal by his colleagues. Brief Summary The first chapter is written by, John Walvoord, and he begins by providing the foundation for the literal view of hell. The author expends the greater part of this section of the book describing these fundamental principles. He argues that hell is a position of perpetual punishment for those who are sinners in the Earth. He derives this view from native translations of the Bible using both the Old and New Testaments. Walvoord exactly takes the words from the Bible’s predictions and the absolute inerrancy of the Bible to suggest that this is the only way to view hell and eternal punishment. The chapter concludes with the author using the literal view to encourage the reader to help people avoid hell and the painfulness, by preaching the Gospel of Jesus Christ. The second chapter is written by William V. Crockett and he has taken the metaphorical view of hell, as read in the Bible and studied by scholars. His view of hell is comparable to the preceding author’s view; it only differs in how the punishment will be administered to the lost. The author has strong Calvinsitic ties, in that he believes that the fortellings of the punishment of hell is not to be taken literally, but as a metaphor. Crockett further states that the reality of hell is indescribable with words and the words that are contained in the Bible are only a breakdown that the human mind can absorb. The chapter concludes with the author stating his disdain for the conditional view. In the third chapter, Zachary J. Hayes takes on the subject of purgatory in the hell discussion. Purgatory in this book is a place where the dead will go, when they don’t quite make it to heaven, but are not bad enough for hell. Notably the author cannot find any Biblical references for purgatory, however he does state that the idea of purgatory evolved from a personal tradition that the Catholic Church adopted. Hayes does also note that he agrees with the metaphorical view of hell. In fourth chapter of the book is written by Dr. Clark Pinnock on the conditional view of hell. The conditional view is also referred to as annihilation, which means that hell will be a punishment of fire and lead to utter destruction of sinners. The actual destruction is the punishment, not the fire itself. Pinnock, uses diverse scriptures that support his claim of everlasting death and God’s moral values. Critical interaction with the author’s work The authors’ goal of this book is to give an educated as well as Biblical look at the different versions of hell. Although the word is talked about many times, but the authors’ aim is to give people all the information available on the subject. After which the reader can make personal decision about their own personal truth. The authors do achieve his goal of factually representing the literal, metaphorical, purgatorial and conditional interpretations of hell. Each author has not imposed his personal opinion or view of hell, but however stated the facts from Biblical and theological sources. Also, having each author evaluate the other authors’ arguments shows potential fallacies in each and gives the reader information to further reflect, evaluate and draw personal conclusions. The strengths of this book would be first, the book was written by students of the word who supported the majority of their arguments with scripture first and with theology second. In the literal view of hell the author comes directly from scriptures and uses those scriptures to plainly paint a picture that we have already been taught since childhood. In the metaphorical argument of hell the author uses scriptures that show support the claim that the descriptions of hell are only be used as metaphors and not to be interpreted literally. The chapter on the conditional view of hell is well written and covers the punishment and destruction parts of hell thoroughly. The first weakness that we encounter in this book is the fact that in the literal view of hell the author does not address the issue of why the scriptures must be taken literally, instead of figuratively. In the metaphorical view of hell the author never addresses the issue of what will actually be, nor does he attempt to answer questions that seem to violate the traits of God. The author in the conditional view of hell uses much of his writing to appeal to the human senses and not to justify those emotions or feelings with scriptures. In the view on purgatory the author spends very little to no time talking about hell, but the time that is between heaven and hell. Although purgatory is the median between heaven and hell the author seems to focus on how the soul can make it to heaven and not the latter. In my opinion I feel that this book would not be suitable for all lay persons to read. I feel that this book would be of best use in the hands of all persons who teach in the church. This book would not only give them basis for what they believe in, but it would also give them the opportunity to understand the contradictions in various beliefs. I feel that this book could be a useful tool to teach about sin. Although the authors have different views on what hell will actually be like, but it does hold one idea in agreement. Hell is a real place it, and sinners will be there. After some research there seem to be many other books that are written about hell. Those other books, after reading summaries, take a similar approach and try to inform the reader what hell is going to be like and what it is not going to be. Many of those books not only deal with hell, but they also address heaven as well with the same level of concern. Conclusion In conclusion the book â€Å"The four views of hell,† the author does achieve his goal. However I feel that the chapter on purgatory did not fit in the book, because the argument was not supported by scriptures and does not necessary classify itself as hell. The book does make thing a little bit about heaven, but more about sin. This book points the finger back to the place where we need not only teach about heaven, but teach also about hell. Many people get lost in the mind frame that there is only heaven or life on earth.

Forrest Gump Essay -- Movie Film Forrest Gump Essays

Forrest Gump â€Å"Life is like a box of chocolates, you never know what you’re gonna get.† Forrest Gump is the portrayal of a man that has been alienated from society, not because he is unintelligent or dimwitted, but rather because he is not restricted by the conventional ideals which are embedded within his culture; thus, Forrest challenges the conformities and principals that most people are accustomed to. The contrast that Robert Zemeckis, director of the film, is attempting to convey through the character of Forrest Gump is how most people are too smart for there own good; and thus, try to escape the realities and actualities of life. While other characters in the story are suppressed by society’s conflicts, Forrest remains blinded to all; hence, he is able to live in the moment, rather than evading what is real. Forrest’s unique selflessness and compelled nature to do what is right, as opposed to what is easy, are what our society incorrectly labels stupidity o r futility. Zemeckis is obviously pointing out that an individual has no control over his or her own destiny and in order to live a noble life, must accept life as it is. I think it is very appropriate that Zemeckis begins his movie with the scene in which he does. Approaching Forrest’s worn out and dirty shoes with a fluid camera shot of a feather floating on the breeze foregrounds the entire movie. It is an obvious symbol for Forrrest and the way he just casually makes his way through the worst of times without being harmed. The feather is many years old and has been through so much, yet it still remains clean and pure; exactly like Gump. Moreover, the coloring of the feather is very significant. It is white with black marks, giving off a inkling that there might be a union of bad experiences with innocence. Zemeckis challenges the viewer to examine why Gump is able to remain so pure, and at the same time surpassing the restrictions of society and its controversies. Gump is able, throughout his entire life to remain as we all are as children. To Gump, it doesn’t make sense to break a promise, or give only ninety percent. Such an irony is carried throughout the entire film. Gump, thought by most to be incapable of succeeding, does great things, and moreover; he helps those who would, in our society, be thought more likely to be helping him. The viewers, through Gump’s misunderstandings of l... ...nt feather continues to float and so will that lost innocence. Even though Forrest Gump appears as such a simpleton, he is very complex. He had a way of looking at people, incidents, history, animals, and nature in ways that no one had ever quite seen the world before. The movie is so influential because Forrest is a little of everyone, or at least a little of what everyone wishes they can be. What I took away from this movie, as does most of the audience, is that life is a mystery that, until revealed in its entirety, doesn’t make much sense. However, it is not something to be scared from or run from, but rather something to be interested in and to be accepted. The audience accepts Gump as a character, but more importantly, they accept his way of life, just like Lieutenant Dan and Jenny did. Robert Zemeckis is well known for his concoctions of pop culture references, period nostalgia, comedy, and romance that captured the hearts of the film going public. He, in ways that not many others can do, is able to convey his ideas about life in a humorous manner that lets the audience accept it. That is why the movie was so successful and why it was the recipient of such high awards.

Nurse Leader Essay

Nursing leaders are crucial to any nursing organization. They motivate, empower, influence, and communicate the organization’s vision to create change within the organization. Respectable nursing depends on noble nursing leaders. This paper will highlight Florence Nightingale nursing leadership and describe her leadership characteristics. It will further depict the democratic style Florence Nightingale utilized throughout her career. Florence Nightingale was not only a nurse, she was a researcher, educator, and theorist. Her contributions to nursing and society are numerous. Florence Nightingale has been referred to as the â€Å"mother of modern nursing† (Johnson & Webber, 2005). Through her work and example, nursing became a respectable profession for women. She collected data through observation and research and applied that knowledge to social reform on the issues of public and military health and sanitation at home and abroad, rural hygiene, hospital planning, organization, and administration, rights of women and the poor, the definition of nursing, and the need for trained nurses and midwives to care for people in workhouses, hospitals, schools, penitentiaries, the military, and at home (Wellman, 1999). Due to the nature of her work and her commitment to improved patient outcomes by developing best practices based on observation and research, she should be considered the first public health nurse and champion of Evidence Based Practice. She is responsible for initiating the professional education of woman in nursing outside of the sisterhood and promoting their employment in hospitals and workhouses throughout England and abroad Florence Nightingale was a theorist. She developed her Environmental Model in 1859 and titled it Notes on Nursing: What It Is and What It Is Not based on her observations and experiences while treating the soldiers during the war (Johnson & Webber, 2005). Nightingale wrote: In watching disease, both in private houses and in public hospitals, the thing which strikes the experienced observer most forcibly is this, that the symptoms or the sufferings generally considered to be inevitable and incident to the disease are very often not symptoms of the disease at all, but of something quite different- of the want of fresh air, or of light, or of warmth, or of quiet, or of cleanliness, or of punctuality and care in the administration of diet, of each or of all of these (Nightingale, 1860, p. 2). Florence wrote these notes on practice, not intending them to be a manual on nursing, but ideas or women who take care of others because she felt that at some point, nearly every woman nursed somebody in her charge and it was up to them to manipulate the environment to help nature take its course (Nightingale, 1860). Her model includes 13 constructs with recommendations on implementing them. They are: ventilation and warming, health of houses, petty management, noise, variety, taking food, what food, bed and bedding, light, cleanliness of rooms and walls, personal cleanliness, chattering hopes and advises, and observation of the sick (Nightingale, 1860). Although Nightingale did not intend for her writings to become a teaching manual for nurses, her ideas were clearly applicable to teaching nurses how to care for the patient environment and was eventually used in her school to do just that (Johnson & Weber, 2005). Some of her hints on nursing are still applicable to practice today. They represent a holistic view of nursing by addressing the physical, mental, and social aspects of the patient environment. For instance, cleanliness of air, water, home, linen, and person are still important and helpful in preventing disease and promoting health. Also, adequate nutrition and sunlight are necessary for proper bodily function. Excessive noise and lack of variety can be harmful to mental health and must be remedied. Lastly, as nurses we still observe the sick, keep track of their vital signs, likes and dislikes, and monitor changes in their condition. All of this we record in the patient’s chart much like Nightingale did when she recorded her observations 150 years ago. Although Nightingale’s Environmental Model does not meet the guidelines of modern theory and has not spawned the same quantity of research as contemporary models, it can be said that her ideas have influenced nursing theorists and their respective models. Like all nurse theorists, Nightingale used her personal, spiritual, and educational experiences to guide her ideas (Johnson & Weber, 2005). The Living Tree of Nursing Theories was developed by nurses to illustrate the influence of Florence Nightingale on later nurse theorists. It proposes that person, environment, health, and nursing are the roots of the tree and Nightingale is the trunk supporting the branches, which are the modern theorists (Tourville & Ingalls, 2003). In essence, without Florence Nightingale’s work and ideas, nursing theory would not be the same as it is today. She created the fundamentals on which nursing theory is built. In fact, when comparing modern theories to the Nightingale Model many similarities can be appreciated. Henderson was concerned that the early nurse practice acts did not clearly cover what nursing is and therefore promoted an unsafe environment for the public. She helped define what nursing is and what it was not. Her definition reads: The unique function of the nurse is to assist the individual, sick or well, in the performance of those activities contributing to health, or its recovery (or to a peaceful death) that he would perform unaided if he had the necessary strength, will, or knowledge. And to do this in such a way as to help him gain independence as rapidly as possible (Johnson & Webber, 2005, p. 133). A direct connection can be made to Nightingale’s model if one considers the changes in societal expectations and the growth of the nursing role from doer to helper in the 100 years between when the two theories were written. Henderson promotes helping the patient achieve independence through nursing assistance that Nightingale did not. Her 14 components of nursing are similar to Nightingale’s 13. They include: breathe normally, eat and drink adequately, eliminate body wastes, move and maintain desirable postures, sleep and rest, select suitable clothing, maintain normal body temperature, keep the body clean and well groomed to protect the integument, avoid dangers in the environment and avoid injuring others, communicate with others, worship according to one’s faith, work in such a way that there is a sense of accomplishment, play or participate in various forms of recreation, and learn, discover, or satisfy the curiosity that leads to normal development and health using available health facilities (Johnson & Webber, 2005). Faye Abdellah’s theory titled, Patient-Centered Approaches, is just that, patient centered. Her 21 nursing problems are also similar to Nightingales 13 ideas and when advances in science and understanding of how the human body functions are taken into consideration a direct correlation can be established. Lastly, Sister Callista Roy’s Adaptation Model relies on the construct that the role of the nurse is to manipulate the environment to free patients so that they can adapt to other stimuli. Although this is a deviation from Nightingale’s theory, both nurses believed in the reparative process of providing the optimal environment for healing (Johnson & Webber, 2005). In conclusion, Florence Nightingale was instrumental in influencing nursing and society by opening the door for women to practice as nurses, promoting nurse education, guiding evidence based practice through her research and observations, by being a human rights advocate, and by working tirelessly to improve the health and quality of life for people throughout many nations. Florence Nightingale devoted her life in the pursuit of helping others.

Family Life During Civil War Essay

As a pivotal point in our nation’s history, the civil war holds a special fascination in the land and minds of the American people. It was a war entirely fought by Americans, often dividing families and even brothers against brothers. The American civil war was unforgettable. It was fought between the United States of America and the Southern slave states of the nearly formed confederate state of America under Jefferson Davis. The Civil War made really a tragic long lasting effect on a family unit of that period. During Civil War, families on both sides of the war had to bear a pain of personal loss. Husbands and fathers and sons died not in hundreds but in thousands of numbers in both the North and South and many of them returned home either handicapped or wounded manner. So many men not only injured physically but due to their wartime experiences, they had suffered more emotionally also. This effected their already burdened struggling families more. This way, the families ha d suffered with physical and psychological pain a lot. Also the families were divided during Civil war. The only bread winner of any family – may be a father or husband or an elder son had to go far off the home. So in those families, especially middle class, wives and mothers had to work in the home and also out of the home. They were the only to take care about every aspects of the family including children. And for this they were not much trained. This situation for city women was much more difficult (.netplaces.com). The painting from the article of war sprits at home by Lily Martin Spencer shows that she herself is sitting in the kitchen with her children and a servant. Lacking an adult male figure, the painting reflects the absence of men in the home during this period in American history. The painting from the article of war sprits at home by Lily Martin Spencer shows that she herself is sitting in the kitchen with her children and a servant. Lacking an adult male figure, the painting reflects the absence of men in the home during this period in American history. Northern families lost a great many loved ones over the course of war and experienced their share of problems and grief, but southern families suffered far more. Many southern towns and cities were destroyed and the impact on the confederate civilian population was enormous in all eras (netplace.com). Most people and families in the south led the pastoral life, organized around agricultural activities. Many people in south had no slaves or very few, so all the man does physical labor. Due to war, families lost their able-bodied man, which had changed the condition of family that women had to do all the work in the house and farms to keep farms functioning with the other works such as cleaning, making and fixing cloths, and raising the children (civilwar.org). As war went on, people also started suffering from hunger. With confederate troops, to feed and burning all the remaining food, combined with the lack of available rail transportation which was being use by war efforts. They also suffered from the lack of goods as all the industries and factories were busy preparing the goods for civil war. As many men and sons were forced to leave their house they were not able to concentrate in the war. Handwritten letters were the main form of communication between soldiers and their relatives during civil war. Soldiers became desperate to hear from their families and for news from home. They even gladly read each other’s letters just to hear about familiar places and everyday situations; anything to take their mind off the war and their struggles. Robert T. Tallman, wrote to William Brown, with an interesting suggestion as a possible means to encourage more communication (ozarkscivilwar.org). â€Å"I have not had a letter for two weeks what is our folks doing. tell them I am dead and maybe they w ill send for my bounty and wages, and I will hear from them that way if no other.†( Robert T. Tallman letter to William Brown – February 11, 1865). Civil war had the same impact on northern families. White families in Virginia first confronted the war’s impact with the enlistments of their male kin. To provide food and protect families, men were pulled away from their loved ones to serve in the confederate army. As one Virginia solider put his duty in the war encompassed â€Å"the defense of our country, our liberty and the protection of our parent, wives, children, and all that is dear to a man† (encylopediavirginia.org). 50 percent of the male enlisted from Virginia tried to help both families and the confederacy. But it was of no use. Wives, daughters, sisters, and other female kin assumed much of the work normally pursued by men- managing plantation, harvesting crops, running business. This pressure took toll on women. â€Å"We felt like clinging to Walter and holding him back†, wrote one Virginia woman in reaction to a family member’s enlistment. â€Å"I was sick of war, sick of the butchery, th e anguish† (encylopediavirginia.org). Virginia Civilians After a Battle Often soldiers tries to maintain their role in family through home letters, but their correspondence proved an imperfect surrogate when the mail, disrupted by war, was slow in coming. Some women also tried to bring their men home by filing petition with the confederate secretary of war for a man’s exemption, or by urging a soldier to desert the army, which were often unsuccessful and so the women has to wait for her man until the war end or sometimes she never gets to see him. These lines from the letter were included in the Civil War diary of Samuel Bennett, a Daviess County native who fought for the Union Army. In it, Bennett’s mother expresses her worries about his welfare. â€Å"Wilson I dreamed last night that you had come home you may be sure that I was sorry when I waked and found it was a dere dream Wilson the crop is in tolerable good order you father commensed mowing yesterday and Amas thought he could mow and your father concluded that he might to get it he does very well Wilson we will get your janes today and if you want a pair of everyday pants I want you to let me know and I will make them and bring them if we get to come and if not I will send them I hope we will get to come yet I must bring my broken lines to a close by saing I hope that it will not bee long till we see each others face Write as soon as this comes to hand I remain your devoted and loving mother untill death†(ket.org). Political divisions sometimes compounded the separation experienced by families. Regions with high unionist concentrations, witnessed the division of house members against each other-pitting father against son, husband against wife, and sometimes brother against brother. John fee wrote in his autobiography that â€Å"The next morning just as I was about starting back to my home, my father said to me, â€Å"Julett is here on my premises, and I will sell her before sundown if I can.† I turned to him and said, â€Å"Father, I am now that woman’s only guardian†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. yet if you sell that woman, I will prosecute you for so doing, as sure as you are a man.†(ket.org) Civil war had made a enormous effect on the family life. Many lost their loved ones and very few got their loved ones back. Thus the civil war era was very hard for every women, men, and child. To claim that the Civil War was unlike any war before or since is an argument this overlooks many of the continuities of time displayed in a history of warfare. Certainly it can be claimed to be the first type of war in several of its features, but entirely different isolates it from this history and leaves out very important aspects of it. Citation * â€Å"The American Civil War.† 123helpme.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Feb. 2013. . * Civil War Trust. â€Å"Civil War Lesson Plans: Southern Life during Civil War.† Civilwar.org. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Feb. 2013. . * Stoddard, Brooke C., and Daniel P. Murphy. â€Å"Family Life during Civil War.† Netplaces.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Feb. 2013. . * Slipp, Naomi, ed. â€Å"Unpacking Feminist Content in Lilly Martin Spencer’s â€Å"War Spirit at Home†.† WordPress.com. N.p., 17 Dec. 2009. Web. 2 Feb. 2013. . * â€Å"Women and Children at Home.† Ket.org. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Feb. 2013. . * STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY of MISSOURI RESEARCH CENTER – ROLLA, ed. â€Å"Tallaman- Brown Family Papers.† Ozarkscivilwar.org. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Feb. 2013. . * â€Å"Impact of the Civil War on the Tennessee Homefront.† Liberary.mtsu.edu. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Feb. 2013. . * Taylor, Amy Murrell. â€Å"Family Life During the Civil War.† Encylopedia Virginia. Ed. Brendan Wolfe. 2 February 2013 Virginia Foundation Humanities 6 feb 2012

Psychoactive Drug Testing on Animals

Psychoactive Drug Testing on Animals Theories have been suggested towards the psychotic like traits in animals that have been subjected to psychoactive drugs. The proposed theories were accompanied by research experiments to evaluate the effects of psychoactive drug testing in animals. Psycho active drugs refers to drugs that have a significant effect on the behavioral characteristics of animals; both human and non human organisms.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Psychoactive Drug Testing on Animals specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The alterations in behavioral traits of animals due to psychoactive drugs are primarily attributed to the changes in the brain functions or inhibition of certain brain components in animals which ultimately translates to changes in moods, behavior, and consciousness of the animals. Psychoactive drugs are known to bring subjective changes with regard to consciousness, for instance alertness that is observed in animals that hav e been subjected to psychoactive drugs such as caffeine and cocaine. Apart from psychoactive medications, there are many other substances that are responsible for psychotropic behaviors in animals. Such drug substances include alcohol, cocaine, marijuana, opium, caffeine, heroine and nicotine that are well known to have profound effects on animals such as cats, spiders, rats and other animals (Stahl 159). Psychoactive drugs can be classified primarily into four categories: antipsychotics which are used for treatment of states of agitation; antidepressants which are used for depression treatment; mood stabilizers; anxiolytics which are used to treat anxiety states; physiostimulants which are used to increase the physical performance of the animal’s body; Nootropics which assists in the cognitive functions of the human brain (Spiegel Hossein 135). This research paper attempts to explain the theories, hypotheses and effects of psychoactive drugs on animal drug testing. Theory o riented issues on psychoactive drugs Research in the field of psychopharmacology have inferred the probability of utilizing psychoactive drugs using experimental approach for theory oriented objectives: a central research strategy for the physiological psychology is through the administration of psychotic drugs to human and non human organisms (Stahl 145). Theoretical approach is different from the other classical approaches to psychopharmacology such as lesions which attempt to evaluate the effects of different doses (in terms of quantifiability and reversibility) to evaluate the effects of psychoactive drugs on animals. The only feasible method to study the effect of psychoactive substances in animals, for example rats and mice is through experimental administration of the psychoactive drugs into the animals and monitoring behavioral and performance traits (Spiegel Hossein 202).Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Questions concerning the relationship between behavioral characteristics and the animal brain may be evaluated through establishing the relationship between the dopaminergic functions, and specific aspects that are vital in determining attention and motivation. Theory oriented approach towards pharmacology emphasized on the relationship between changes in animal behavioral traits and drug actions. It was shown that test subjects with high levels agitation had responded differently to psychoactive drugs compared to those with less anxiety. This difference in response is asserted by the theory of activation; due to the different levels of arousals which is subjective to the levels of and agitation in the animals under test (Spiegel Hossein 205). Hypotheses in psychopharmacology The hypothetical approach towards psychopharmacology was due to the need to have analytical explanations of the physiological and psychological concepts that are related to the effects of psychoactive drugs on animals. Early speculations suggested disturbance on the in the brain in terms of biological perspectives, but analytical approaches that were required to approve or disapprove the suggestions were not obtainable; therefore, the rise of hypothetical approaches towards psychopharmacology. Some of the suggested hypotheses are outlined below (Spiegel Hossein 150). The serotonin hypothesis of Schizophrenia This hypothesis was first postulated by Woolley and Shaw; two American biochemists, during 1954. The hypothesis stated that Schizophrenia like traits that are exhibited in animals is primarily due to disturbances during the setoninenergic neurotransmission in the animal brain (Stahl Lerer 160). Schizophrenic traits in animals include rapid changes in the animal personality and moods of the animal test subject. The hypothesis has a number of supporting facts which include: the psychotropic actions of the LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) , which has the capability to trigger alterations in perceptions, thoughts and also feelings in the animal’s brain. The LSD also has the capabilities to block the activity of serotonin which was proved later in various tests (Stahl Lerer 162). Woolley and Shaw were of the view that serotonin is present in the animal brain and functions as a neurotransmitter, it was therefore speculated the psychotropic effects in animals associated with LSD’s ability to resist the effects of the serotonin on the animal brain; therefore it was reached that disturbances in the serotoninergic neurotransmission is primarily responsible for psychotropic disorders in the animal test subjects (Stahl Lerer 162).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Psychoactive Drug Testing on Animals specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Despite of the enough scientific evidence and appeal, the serotonin hypothesis of Schizophrenia was soon refuted d ue to its conflict psychopathological and pharmacology research finding that revealed that the psychotic symptoms in animal test subjects that associated with LSD differ from the typical symptoms that are associated schizophrenia. Although this hypothesis was refuted fast, it was important in two aspects: it facilitated the proposition of serotonin assay methods and provided proof that serotonin is not present in the brain, it also served as a prototype for the other forthcoming hypotheses (Stahl Lerer 163). The dopamine Hypotheses of Schizophrenia The drawback of the serotonin hypothesis of schizophrenia was that it lacked direct correlation with the properties associated with psychoactive drugs. The context of dopamine hypothesis is different because all known psychoactive substances have an inhibitory effect in the dopaminergic neurons in the animal brain, although they differ with respect to pharmacological side effects on humans. The hypothesis assumes that the antipsychotic n ature of chlorpromazine and other similar neuropletics is significantly determined by their cataleptic potential; their capability to induce catalepsy in animals. This hypothesis lost its credibility during the discovery that thiorodazine, which is a similar neuropletic to chlorpromazine had little effects (Stahl Lerer 155). Despite the critic that followed the hypothesis, there were a number of adjustments to the dopamine hypothesis on schizophrenia. The argument of the hypothesis that neuropletics act through blocking of the post synaptic dopamine receptors is still consistent with majority of pharmacological research observations (Stahl Lerer 155). The catecholamine hypothesis of Depression The hypothesis was first suggested during 1965 by J. Schildkraut. The hypothesis states that majority of depression like behavior in animals are due to part or total deficiency of catecholamine, which functions at the receptor sites in the animal brain. The hypothesis was consistent with the clinical and pharmacological research findings (Schatzberg Nemerof 199). The catecholamine hypothesis can be attributed for the bringing together of several pharmacological research findings but contradicted many clinical observations, especially the delay on the onset of action of the anti depressant drugs on animal test subjects. The same applies to the serotonin hypothesis (Stahl Lerer 124).Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The serotonin hypothesis of depression The serotonin hypothesis of depression states that majority of depression traits in animals are due to absolute deficiency of serotonin in some of the parts of the brain. A number of arguments have been suggested to support the hypothesis (Schatzberg Nemerof 200). There is also a number of pharmacological finding that support the serotonin and catecholamine hypothesis of depression. Depressions like traits in animals are not a single disorder; there are depressions that related to the serotonin deficiency and on a similar account catecholamine deficiency (Schatzberg Nemerof 205). Effects of psychoactive drugs The effects of psychoactive drugs on animals can be viewed from the following perspectives: drug oriented, which is primarily defined by the compound composition of the psychoactive drug; methodology oriented, which is defined by the sensitivity of the animal under the drug test to the psychoactive drugs; theory oriented, which described by analysis of the brain behavior of the animal under test due to the psychoactive drug use; practical oriented which describes the effects of psychoactive drugs on everyday activities (Schatzberg Nemerof 205). There are a number of effects associated with psychoactive drug uses which are outlined below according the results of psychoactive drug testing on animals. Psychoactive drugs usually have strong effects on animals. Some of the psychoactive drugs that significantly affect animals in different ways include: caffeine, LSD, marijuana and many more. Majority of Pharmacological research concerning the effects of psychoactive drugs reported that at small concentrations, psychoactive drugs have an effect on the feeding behaviors of insects and molluscs. At high concentration, it is reported that psychoactive drugs could cause death on the test subjects (Schatzberg Nemerof 206). Psychotic drugs usually have notable effects on the animal test subjects; these effects can be describe d principally as being subjective effects. In addition, there are effects that may be noticed by the observer, such as performance deterioration. Such effects are generally termed behavioral effects. A study on spiders revealed that spiders constructed more disordered webs after being subjected to psychoactive drugs than when they have not been subjected to psychoactive drugs (Schatzberg Nemerof 208). A research by a German pharmacologist, P. N Witt on the effects of psychotic drugs on spiders revealed that the shape and size of the webs constructed by the spiders varied significantly when the spiders were subjected to the psychotic drugs. At smaller amounts of caffeine, the webs were a little regular with uniform radii. At higher doses of about 100 microgram per spider, the webs were much more disoriented and irregular (Schatzberg Nemerof 205). This implies that psychoactive drugs are responsible performance deterioration in animals such as spiders. It is widely believed that oth er plants developed psychoactive substances in their leaves in order to serve as a protection mechanism against the harmful animals such as spiders. Another category of psychoactive drug use effect is the neurophysiological effects which primarily affect the functionality of the animal brain. This is primarily responsible for observations of hyperactivity and tremor in animal test subjects. Various parameters are used to measure the extent of the effects of the psychotic drugs on animal test subjects (Schatzberg Nemerof 197). During 1984, a pharmacologist named Nathanson carried our research on the effects of psycho stimulants on arthropods and molluscs. Cats that were subjected to higher doses of caffeine revealed higher levels of hyperactivity; as evidenced through licking of their cheeks, rolling over the ground and to some extent sexual arousal (Stahl 156). Another effect that is associated with the testing of psychoactive drugs on animals is the alterations in the behavioral t raits of the animal test subject. Psychotic drugs have reported increased effects on the alterations of animals’ behavior. This is due to the effects of the drugs on the way the brain functions. Any change in the dopamine levels in the animal test subject’s brain is sufficient enough to induce behavioral change in the test subjects (Stahl 198). Behavioral pharmacology research studies have indicated that rats and mice that have been subjected to small doses of cocaine have higher response rates than ordinary rats and mice. Conclusion Psychoactive drugs use is bound to cause harmful effects on the animal test subjects. These psychological effects are primarily attributed due to alterations in the brain functionality as the above theories and hypotheses suggests; this explicitly explains the hyperactivity and tremor behavior in animals that have been subjected to psychoactive drugs. Some of the common physiological effects that are associated with the use of psychoactive drugs include mood alterations, consciousness and drowsiness, which are primarily due to impairing the functionality of the brain. All the hypotheses are drawn from one perspective; a given substance is antagonistic towards the brain activity and that is the underlying principle that explains the nature of psychoactive drugs (Spiegel Hossein 205). Schatzberg, Alan F. and Nemeroff B. Charles. Essentials of clinical psychopharmacology. Washington, D.C: American Psychiatric Pub, 2006. Print. Spiegel, Renà © and Hossein Fatemi. Psychopharmacology: an introduction. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, 2003. Print. Stahl, Stephen. Stahls essential psychopharmacology: neuroscientific basis and practical applications. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008. Print. Stahl, Stephen and Lerer ,Bernard. Evidence-based psychopharmacology. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008. Print.